Parabolic Trough
www.ParabolicTrough.com

Providing Parabolic Troughs and CSP Project Development Services* Including;
Power Purchase Agreement Financing/Investments and Engineering Procurement Construction
Services to Insure the Lowest Cost Solar Power & Lowest Cost Solar Energy
For Our Clients on a Strict "Vendor Neutral" Basis

Call/email us:

The Leader and Original Developer of "Solar Cogeneration" and "Solar Trigeneration"
Energy Systems, Now Offering our own HCPV Solar Technology and Providing;
Power Purchase Agreements, Renewable Energy Project Development, PPA Funding
& Renewable Energy Investments Services for Qualified Clients

* Some services provided by our strategic partners and affiliated companies

"Concentrating Solar Power - The Technology That Will Save Humanity"
according to Dr. Joseph Romm. Link to Dr. Romm's article at Salon.com:
http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2008/04/14/solar_electric_thermal/index.html

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Now Offering Our 40% High-efficiency HCPV Solar Technology
for Solar Power Parks Located in the Southwest U.S.

OUR HCPV SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

HCPV, or "High Concentration PhotoVoltaic," represents the highest efficiencies available in solar PV technologies.

The Renewable Energy Institute, in partnership with a U.S. based engineering company with over 30 years R&D in HCPV technology, is now offering this technology for locations in the Southwest U.S. The Solar HCPV company specializes in the design, research/development and distribution of this HCPV technology which is about to surpass the 40% efficiency barrier. While many of today solar PV panels are considered "efficient" at 15%, our HCPV technology is already at 40% efficiency, and in the near future, we will be increasing our efficiency to over 60%.

Even at today's 40% efficiency, our HCPV technology provides nearly 3 times the economic revenues of any 12-15% efficient PV panel. And today, our HCPV technology is already the most efficient, environmentally-friendly solar technology available anywhere in the world.

While 15-16% efficient PV panels are still in high demand—mostly due to financial subsidies and incentives—these 15-16% efficient PV panels are NOT profitable without the economic incentives. Our HCPV technology is profitable from day one, even without financial incentives Investment Tax Credits, Feed In Tariffs, or any other government subsidies. Thus, we foresee our HCPV solar technology to be the technology of choice not only in the short-term, but the long-term as well.

Our HCPV equipment is also the most reliable PV technology available today. Unlike other solar PV technologies, our HCPV is superior due to the materials of construction (and without the toxic and lethal components of Cadmium Telluride used in other PV panels).

Finally, and most importantly, our HCPV solar technology does NOT decrease in efficiency with time; which is the case with all other PV technologies available today.

Please review the following information regarding our HCPV solar technology and call the Renewable Energy Institute at (512) 772-3500 with any questions or information.

Engineering/project development services available for qualified clients for solar power parks located in the Southwest U.S.

1cm2 Germanium HCPV solar cell
mounted on a heat sink, operates
at 525 suns concentration, and
produces approx. 20W DC power.

Performance characteristics of our HCPV Solar Cells
under actual working conditions

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT PV TECHNOLOGIES

Developers/Investors of Solar Power Parks:

Our Utility Scale HCPV Solar Power Plants have the Highest Efficiencies & Lowest Operating Costs and Lowest Levelized Cost of Energy Using Less than 1% of the Water Required by Typical Power Plants (including Concentrating Solar Power Plants)

Minimum Size HCPV Solar Power System: 1 MW
Warranty: 10 Years
Approximate Cost: $3.75 million
Area required: 3 acres
Time to install: 6-9 months after signed agreement

Preferred Minimum Project Size:
10 MW with 35 Acres in Southwest U.S. Location

Now Developing Solar Power Plants With Our
Preferred HCPV Solar Technologies in:
Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico & Texas

Developers of Solar Power Parks interested in our solar power plant development services or HCPV solar technology call/ email with details relating to your project:

info@HighConcentrationPhotovoltaic.com

info@HCPV.org

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Greenhouse Gas Emissions Market worth $2 Trillion
by 2012 according to the United Nations
Full story found on following link:

http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=433&ArticleID=4792&l=en

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We Design/Engineer, Sell, Finance, Install, Operate and Maintain:
Utility Scale Solar Power Plants, including:

Concentrated Solar Power Plants
Concentrating Photovoltaic Power Plants
Concentrating Solar Power Plants
High Concentration Photovoltaic Power Plants

We Design/Engineer, Sell, Finance, Install, Operate and Maintain:
Solar Energy Systems, including;

Solar Heating and Cooling
Solar Absorption Cooling Systems
Solar Electric Power Systems
Solar Water Heating Systems
Solar Cogeneration Energy Systems
Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems
Solar Thermal Collectors
Evacuated Tube Collectors

Commercial, Government, Municipal & Utility Customers:

You may qualify for our zero up-front cost
Solar Energy System or Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System
that we can install at your business
or facility with our Power Purchase Agreement,

To receive our no cost, no obligation proposal,
simply email us your business' or facility's past 12 months:

1. electric utility expenses (invoices)

2. natural gas utility expenses (invoices)

Send the above via email to: info@PowerPurchaseAgreement.com

PPA Funding for Power Purchase Agreements
and Solar Power Purchase Agreements
Now Available Through PPA Funding Partners
for Qualified Commercial, Industrial, Municipal/Government Clients

Power Purchase Agreement
www.PowerPurchaseAgreement.com

by PPA Funding Partners

Providing Capital and Funding for Power Purchase Agreements
and Solar Power Purchase Agreements Through the

PPA Fund ^sm
(planning and formation stage)

Until our First PPA Round of Funding is Completed, we have
Multiple Solar Joint Venture Partnership Opportunities Available Through
Multiple Solar Installation Companies located from Hawaii to Florida
and Texas to Toronoto - All Solar Projects are with Clients that are
Commercial, Industrial, Municipal or Utility Scale Projects -
All With Excellent Credit and Backed with our PPA

Present IRRs for our Solar PPA Projects ranging from:
11% with our basic Solar Energy Systems, to
Over 18% with our proprietary Solar Cogeneration ^sm
and Solar Trigeneration ^sm Energy Systems

Solar Power and Energy Services Include:

Solar Energy Feasibility
Solar Power Feasibility
Solar Feasibility
Solar Feasibility Studies

* No Up-front Cost Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems
for Qualified Commercial, Industrial & Municipal/Government Customers

* Terms and Conditions for Free Solar Power System include: (1) For qualified commercial clients only. (2) Minimum size rating of 500 kW solar power system. (3) Minimum monthly electric usage requirements apply. (4) Subject to credit approval. (5) Other conditions may apply, depending on location, utility restrictions and regulations.

Leading the Net Zero Energy^sm &
Net Zero Energy Building^sm Revolution!

Our Net Zero Energy Building™ upgrades "brown" buildings to "green" buildings, with our Solar Trigeneration™ energy system, similar to one installed on a 5,000 sq. ft. office building that has been operating "dis-connected" from the electric grid for 6 years. And, the owners received one of the first Platinum LEED awards in the U.S.

Customers that could benefit from having their "brown" building upgraded to a "green" building with one of our Solar Trigeneration™ energy systems include:

Casinos
Churches (with schools)
Cities
Colleges
Condos
Convenience Stores
Data Centers
Department Stores
Government facilities
Health Clubs
Hospitals
Hotels
Laundries
Manufacturing
Office Buildings/campuses
Radio and Television Stations
Restaurants
Schools
Server Farms
Shopping Centers
Universities

For many qualified commercial customers, we will install our Solar Trigeneration™ energy system (or one of our other Solar Energy Systems) at your business....

with no up-front costs!

and sell the "pollution free power" power and energy to your business - for LESS than what you are presently paying your utility company/companies!

Whether your business purchases one of our solutions or we install - own - operate - and maintain the Solar Energy System solution on behalf of your business through our Power Purchase Agreement and sell the power and energy to your business at a discount - your business will have lower power and energy expenses while significantly reducing your greenhouse gas emissions.

For More Information About Reducing or Eliminating
Your Company's Carbon Emissions, or Upgrading your Company's
Buildings/Facility with Net Zero Energy Building, call/email:

Tel. (832) 758 - 0027

info@NetZeroEnergy.com

info@NetZeroEnergyBuilding.com

Our Utility Scale Solar Power Plants
have the Highest Efficiencies & Lowest Operating Costs
Without the Large Water Requirements of Typical Power Plants
including Concentrating Solar Power Plants

Call/email for more information, call/email:

Tel. (832) 758 - 0027

info@ConcentratingSolarPower.com

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The Ultimate Online Resource for Concentrating Solar Power Plant Information, Education, Resources
& Turnkey Concentrating Solar Power Plant Engineering, Procurement & Construction Services

Parabolic Troughs are, in essence, curved mirrors designed to reflect the energy from the sunlight, onto a "Dewar Tube" that run the length of the parabolic trough's focal point. Parabolic Troughs are typically constructed with either a coated silver or polished aluminum.

Parabolic Troughs are aligned on a north-south basis and they track or rotate throughout the day to follow the sun in order to keep the maximum amount of the sun's available energy concentrated on them.

Inside the Dewar Tube is a "heat transfer fluid" that absorbs the heat energy from the sun, which is then pumped from the Dewar Tube to a Heat Recovery Steam Generator, where the heat energy is converted into steam, which then drives one or more steam turbines, which is connected to a synchronous generator, which then generates electricity and is sent to the electric grid.

The temperature of the heat transfer fluid quickly reaches 750 degrees as the sun's energy is captured by the Parabolic Troughs. The overall process is very economical and thermal efficiency ranges from about 60% to as high as 80%.

Concentrating solar power plants produce electric power by converting the sun's energy into high-temperature heat using various mirror configurations. The heat is then channeled through a conventional generator. The plants consist of two parts: one that collects solar energy and converts it to heat, and another that converts heat energy to electricity.

Concentrating solar power systems can be sized for village power (10 kilowatts) or grid-connected applications (up to 100 megawatts). Some systems use thermal storage during cloudy periods or at night. Others can be combined with natural gas and the resulting hybrid power plants provide high-value, dispatchable power. These attributes, along with world record solar-to-electric conversion efficiencies, make concentrating solar power an attractive renewable energy option in the Southwest and other sunbelt regions worldwide.

For generating power after the sun sets, many owners/developer of concentrating solar power plants are now installing "Molten Salt Storage" systems that reserves enough energy to allow for electricity generation throughout the nighttime period.

Steam turbines and gas turbines powered by coal, uranium, oil and natural gas are the fuels used today for generating power and electric grid stability. These fuels provide both base-load and peak power. However, these same steam turbines can also be powered by the high temperature heat from concentrating solar power plants.

Concentrating solar power plants in the 30 MW - 200 MW range are now operating successfully in locations from California to Europe. Nearly every day now, new concentrating solar power plants are being planned for construction. The concentrating solar collectors are very efficient and they also completely replace the fossil fuels that were used in traditional power plants. Today's concentrating solar power plants generate the heat needed to generate electricity at a cost equivalent to $50 - $60 per barrel of oil (equivalent). This cost is expected be slashed by 50% to below $25 - $30 per barrel in the next 10 years.

Just like conventional fossil-fueled power plants, concentrating solar power plants generate base-load and peaking power electricity.

A concentrating solar power plant with a molten salt storage facility for full load operation during the nighttime period is currently being built in the Spanish Sierra Nevada near Guadix. This concentrating solar power plant will generate 50 MW of power.

Another feature that distinguishes concentrating solar power plants is the opportunity for combined generation of heat and power - a technology that is called "Integrated Solar Combined Cycle" which achieves the highest possible efficiencies for energy conversion. In addition to power generation, such plants can provide steam for absorption chillers and/or adsorption chillers, industrial process heat or thermal ocean water desalination. A design study for such a plant was completed in 2006. This plant is scheduled to be commissioned in early 2009. This Integrated Solar Combined Cycle will provide 10 MW of power, 40 MW of district cooling and 10,000 cubic meters per day of desalted water for a large hotel in Jordan.

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In the map below, the larger red square on the left shows an area of hot desert that, if covered with concentrating solar power plants,
would produce as much electricity as the world currently uses. The smaller square shows a corresponding area for providing all of the
power needed by the European Union.

map

The map and information above courtesy of www.Desertec.org

Over $5.5 billion in New Investment for Clean Energy Technology in the Middle East and North Africa Region

World Bank Press Release No:2010/MNA/183

Washington, DC, December 9, 2009 - The Clean Technology Fund (CTF) approved financing of $750 million on December 2, 2009, which will mobilize an additional $4.85 billion from other sources, to accelerate global deployment of Concentrated Solar Power (CSP). It will do so by investing in the CSP programs of five countries in the Middle East and North Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia. The CTF is a multi-donor trust fund to facilitate deployment of low-carbon technologies at scale. Specifically, the CTF approved an investment plan which will:

The proposed gigawatt-scale deployment through 11 commercial-scale power plants over a 3-5 year time-frame would provide the critical mass of investments necessary to attract significant private sector interest, benefit from economies of scale to reduce cost, result in learning in diverse operating conditions, and manage risk.

Shamshad Akhtar, World Bank Regional Vice President of the Middle East and North Africa, said “This is a most strategic and significant initiative for MENA countries. The initiative would leverage energy diversification, while promoting Euro-Mediterranean integration to the benefit of MENA countries that will be able to exploit one of the major untapped sources of energy. This endeavor is far-reaching with global objectives, implications, and potential impact. It will facilitate faster and greater diffusion of this technology in this region which holds significant potential for CSP".

Potential for Green House Gas (GHG) reduction: The proposed projects will avoid about 1.7 million tons of carbon dioxide per year from the energy sectors of the countries. If the program is successful and replicated, the global benefits will be far larger. The transformational objective of this investment plan is served by accelerating cost reduction for a technology that could become least-cost globally, and then be replicated in other countries with high GHG emissions.

Expected Results from the Investment plan: The results indicators for the investment plan are:

§ GHG reductions of at least 1.7 million tons of CO2-equivalent per year.

§ Approximately 900 MW of installed CSP capacity by 2020.

§ $4.85 billion of co-financing mobilized, including sufficient concessional financing to ensure viability of CSP plants.

§ Cost of typical solar field in US$ per m2 is expected to decline over the life of the program.

The Climate Investment Funds (CIF), implemented jointly by the African Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Inter-American Development Bank, International Finance Corporation, and World Bank, is comprised of the CTF to provide scaled up financing for the demonstration, deployment and transfer of low carbon technologies that have a significant potential for long-term greenhouse gas emissions savings; and the SCF, a suite of three targeted programs to pilot new approaches to climate action, each with potential for scaled up, transformational action: the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR), the Forest Investment Program (FIP) and the Program for Scaling Up Renewable Energy in Low Income Countries (SREP).

Technology Overview

Concentrating solar power plants produce electric power by converting the sun's energy into high-temperature heat using various mirror configurations. The heat is then channeled through a conventional generator. The plants consist of two parts: one that collects solar energy and converts it to heat, and another that converts heat energy to electricity.

The Solar Resource

The solar resource for generating power from concentrating solar power systems is plentiful. For instance, enough electric power for the entire country could be generated by covering about 9 percent of Nevada—a plot of land 100 miles on a side—with parabolic trough systems.

The solar resources for generating power from concentrating solar power systems is plentiful. For instance, enough electric power for the entire country could be generated by covering about 9 percent of Nevada – a plot of land 100 miles on a side – with parabolic trough systems.

The amount of power generated by a concentrating solar power plant depends on the amount of direct sunlight. Like concentrating photovoltaic concentrators, these technologies use only direct-beam sunlight, rather than diffuse solar radiation.

The southwestern United States potentially offers the best development opportunity for concentrating solar power technologies in the world. There is a strong correlation between electric power demand and the solar resource due largely to air conditioning loads in the region. In fact, the Solar Electric Generating System plants operate for nearly 100% of the on-peak hours of Southern California Edison.

How Does It Work?

There are three kinds of concentrating solar power systems—troughs, dish/engines, and power towers—that are classified by how they collect solar energy.

Parabolic Trough systems:

The sun's energy is concentrated by parabolic (curved) trough-shaped reflectors onto a receiver pipe running along the inside of the curved surface. This energy heats an oil that flows through the pipe. The heat energy is then pumped to a location where the heat energy is converted to steam and the stem then generates electricity through one or more steam turbines.

A collector field comprises many troughs in parallel rows aligned on a north-south axis. This configuration enables the single-axis troughs to track the sun from east to west during the day to ensure that the sun is continuously focused on the receiver pipes. Individual Parabolic Trough systems currently can generate about 80 megawatts of electricity.

Parabolic Trough designs can incorporate thermal storage - setting aside the heat transfer fluid in its hot phase - allowing for electricity generation several hours into the evening. Currently, all parabolic trough plants are "hybrids," meaning they use fossil fuel to supplement the solar output during periods of low solar radiation. Typically a natural gas-fired heat or a gas steam boiler/reheater is used; troughs also can be integrated with existing coal-fired plants.

Solar Power Tower systems:

What is a Solar Power Tower and How Does it Work?

A power tower converts sunshine into clean electricity for the world’s electricity grids. The technology utilizes many large, sun-tracking mirrors (heliostats) to focus sunlight on a receiver at the top of a tower. A heat transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to generate steam, which, in turn, is used in a conventional turbine-generator to produce electricity. Early power towers (such as the Solar One plant) utilized steam as the heat transfer fluid; current designs (including Solar Two, pictured) utilize molten nitrate salt because of its superior heat transfer and energy storage capabilities. Individual commercial plants will be sized to produce anywhere from 50 to 200 MW of electricity.

Solar power towers offer large-scale, distributed solutions to our nation’s energy needs, particularly for peaking power. Like all solar technologies, they are fueled by sunshine and do not release greenhouse gases. They are unique among solar electric technologies in their ability to efficiently store solar energy and dispatch electricity to the grid when needed — even at night or during cloudy weather. A single 100-megawatt power tower with 12 hours of storage needs only 1000 acres of otherwise non-productive land to supply enough electricity for 50,000 homes. Throughout the sunny Southwest, millions of acres are available with solar resources that could easily produce solar power at the scale of hydropower in the Northwest U. S.

What is the Status of Power Tower Technology?

Power towers enjoy the benefits of two successful, large-scale demonstration plants. The 10-MW Solar One plant near Barstow, CA, demonstrated the viability of power towers, producing over 38 million kilowatt-hours of electricity during its operation from 1982 to 1988. The Solar Two plant was a retrofit of Solar One to demonstrate the advantages of molten salt for heat transfer and thermal storage. Utilizing its highly efficient molten-salt energy storage system, Solar Two successfully demonstrated efficient collection of solar energy and dispatch of electricity, including the ability to routinely produce electricity during cloudy weather and at night. In one demonstration, it delivered power to the grid 24 hours per day for nearly 7 straight days before cloudy weather interrupted operation.

The successful conclusion of Solar Two sparked worldwide interest in power towers. As Solar Two completed operations, an international consortium, led by the U. S. (with technical support from Sandia National Laboratories), formed to pursue power tower plants worldwide, especially in Spain (where special solar premiums make the technology cost-effective), but also in Egypt, Morocco, and Italy. Their first commercial power tower plant is planned to be four times the size of Solar Two (about 40 MW equivalent, utilizing storage to power a 15MW turbine up to 24 hours per day).

This industry is also actively pursuing opportunities to build a similar plant in our desert Southwest, where a 30 to 50 MW plant would take advantage of the Spanish design and production capacity to reduce costs, while providing much needed peaking capacity for the Western grid. The first such plant would cost in the range of $100M and produce power for about 15¢/kWh. While still somewhat higher in cost than conventional technologies in the peaking market, the cost differential could be made up with modest green power subsidies and political support, jump-starting this technology on a path to 7¢/kWh power with the economies of scale and engineering improvements of the first few plants. It would, at that point, provide clean power as economically as more conventional technologies.

The Solar Dish Engine project will evaluate the performance of the “critical” parts of the Stirling engine and develop the next-generation of the 25 kW Solar Dish Engine System.

Solar Dish Engines

What is a Solar Dish-Engine System?

A Solar Dish Engine is an electric generator that “burns” sunlight instead of gas or coal to produce electricity. The major parts of a system are the solar concentrator and the power conversion unit. Descriptions of these subsystems and how they operate are presented below.

The dish, which is more specifically referred to as a concentrator, is the primary solar component of the system. It collects the solar energy coming directly from the sun (the solar energy that causes you to cast a shadow) and concentrates or focuses it on a small area. The resultant solar beam has all of the power of the sunlight hitting the dish but is concentrated in a small area so that it can be more efficiently used. Glass mirrors reflect ~92% of the sunlight that hits them, are relatively inexpensive, can be cleaned, and last a long time in the outdoor environment, making them an excellent choice for the reflective surface of a solar concentrator. The dish structure must track the sun continuously to reflect the beam into the thermal receiver.

The power conversion unit includes the thermal receiver and the engine/generator. The thermal receiver is the interface between the dish and the engine/generator. It absorbs the concentrated beam of solar energy, converts it to heat, and transfers the heat to the engine/generator. A thermal receiver can be a bank of tubes with a cooling fluid, usually hydrogen or helium, which is the heat transfer medium and also the working fluid for an engine. Alternate thermal receivers are heat pipes wherein the boiling and condensing of an intermediate fluid is used to transfer the heat to the engine.

The engine/generator system is the subsystem that takes the heat from the thermal receiver and uses it to produce electricity. The most common type of heat engine used in dish-engine systems is the Stirling engine. A Stirling engine uses heat provided from an external source (like the sun) to move pistons and make mechanical power, similar to the internal combustion engine in your car. The mechanical work, in the form of the rotation of the engine’s crankshaft, is used to drive a generator and produce electrical power.

In addition to the Stirling engine, concentrating photovoltaic technologies are also being evaluated as possible future power conversion unit technologies. A photovoltaic conversion system is not actually an engine, but a semi-conductor array, in which the sunlight is directly converted into electricity.

What are the markets for Solar Dish-Engines?

Solar dish engines are being developed for use in emerging global markets for distributed generation, green power, remote power, and grid-connected applications. Individual units, ranging in size from 9 to 25 kilowatts, can operate independent of power grids in remote sunny locations to pump water or to provide electricity for people living in remote areas. Largely because of their high efficiency and “conventional” construction, the cost of dish-engine systems is expected to compete in distributed markets.

Opportunities are emerging for the deployment of dish-engine systems in the Southwest U.S. Many states are adopting green power requirements in the form of “portfolio standards” and renewable energy mandates. While the potential markets in the U.S. are large, the size of developing worldwide markets is immense. The International Energy Agency projects an increased demand for electrical power worldwide more than doubling installed capacity. More than half of this is in developing countries and a large part is in areas with good solar resources, limited fossil fuel supplies, and no power distribution network. The potential payoff for dish-engine system developers is the opening of these immense global markets for the export of power generation systems.

Experience gained with Solar Two has established a foundation which will lead to the first commercial Concentrating Photovoltaic Power Plant

Business and Market Opportunities

With one of the best direct normal insolation resources anywhere on earth, the southwestern states are poised to reap large and as yet largely uncaptured economic benefits from this important natural resource. California, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico are each exploring policies that will nurture the development Concentrated Solar Power Technologies..

In addition to the concentrating solar power projects under way in this country, a number of projects are being developed in India, Egypt, Morocco, and Mexico. In addition, independent power producers are in the early stages of design and development for potential parabolic trough power projects in Greece (Crete) and Spain. Given successful deployment of one or more of these initial markets, additional project opportunities are expected in these and other regions.

One key competitive advantage of concentrating solar energy systems is their close resemblance to most of the power plants operated by the nation's power industry. Concentrating solar power technologies utilize many of the same technologies and equipment used by conventional central station power plants, simply substituting the concentrated power of the sun for the combustion of fossil fuels to provide the energy for conversion into electricity. This "evolutionary" aspect—as distinguished from "revolutionary" or "disruptive"—results in easy integration into today's central station–based electric utility grid. It also makes concentrating solar power technologies the most cost-effective solar option for the production of large-scale electricity generation.

Analysts predict the opening of specialized niche markets in this country for the solar power industry over the next 5 to 10 years. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that by 2005 there will be as much as 500 megawatts of concentrating solar power capacity installed worldwide.

What Does It Cost?

Concentrating solar power technologies currently offer the lowest-cost solar electricity for large-scale power generation (10 megawatt-electric and above). Current technologies cost $2–$3 per watt. This results in a cost of solar power of 9¢–12¢ per kilowatt-hour. New innovative hybrid systems that combine large concentrating solar power plants with conventional natural gas combined cycle or coal plants can reduce costs to $1.5 per watt and drive the cost of solar power to below 8¢ per kilowatt hour.

Advancements in the technology and the use of low-cost thermal storage will allow future concentrating solar power plants to operate for more hours during the day and shift solar power generation to evening hours. Future advances are expected to allow solar power to be generated for 4¢–5¢ per kilowatt-hour in the next few decades.

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According to R. James Woolsey, for Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, "The basic insight is to realize that global warming, the geopolitics of oil, and warfare in the Persian Gulf are not separate problems --- they are aspects of a single problem, the West's dependence on oil."

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The Renewable Energy Institute is made up of the brightest minds, professors, climatologists, engineers, politicians and universities. Their "crystal ball" sees "renewable energy" and "renewable energy technologies" as the best path forward for providing the energy the world needs. And it's no longer any energy that will do - the future is for energy that is clean, sustainable, renewable, and "Carbon Free Energy" and "Pollution Free Power."

According to Monty Goodell, MBA the Founder and Chairman of the Renewable Energy Institute, "we must become less dependent on unstable, foreign oil and energy supplies and reduce our 'addiction' to fossil fuels so that we can become energy independent - so that we will not be held hostage by counties with large supplies of fossil fuels such as Iran, Venezuela or Russia, countries that we cannot rely on as our allies or friends."

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WE DON'T NEED FOREIGN OIL OR DOMESTIC COAL!

WE ALREADY HAVE ALL OF
THE RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
WE NEED TO BE ENERGY INDEPENDENT.... TODAY!

WE ONLY NEED TO DEPLOY THE OPTIMUM
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE
SPECIFIC RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES,
WHICH WILL PREVENT
"DANGEROUS INTERFERENCE" OR
"DANGEROUS CLIMATE CHANGE"!

For More Information About,
click on one of the Following Links:

"Dangerous Interference"

"Dangerous Climate Change"

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What is a Power Purchase Agreement?

A Power Purchase Agreement is a legal agreement wherein our clients agree to buy either the power (electricity) or the power and energy (hot water, steam and/or chilled water for air-conditioning) - or both - directly from us, for a term of 10 to 20 years, where we have installed, own and operate our solar energy systems.

In nearly every case, once we have installed our solar energy systems at our client's facility, we can immediately reduce our (commercial) client's electricity expenses by 10% over what they were paying for their power electricity from their electric utility.

The right Power Purchase Agreement, solar cogeneration or solar trigeneration energy solution, may save your company hundreds of thousands, and possibly millions of dollars over the term of the agreement.

Simultaneously, having the wrong or poorly drafted PPA can cost your company thousands or millions of dollars. You wouldn't consult a brain surgeon to treat your child's broken bone! Selecting the wrong attorneys, law firm or team to promulgate or re-negotiate your Power Purchase Agreement can leave you "powerless" and penniless - and still requiring the skills and expertise of competent and qualified professionals to resolve the situation.

Because a Power Purchase Agreement is at the "heart" and underlying foundation of our projects, we can help your business with the selection and oversight of PPA's.

We can help your city or community create a Municipal Utility District or Public Utility District that may then qualify for our very competitively priced energy and electricity rates. Now is the time for cities, municipal and governmental clients to consider having our company install one of our renewable power and energy systems that will generate "clean" power and energy, lower costs, and avoid the coming electricity shortages and grid congestion problems!

Products and services provided by us include the following power and energy project development services:

The Best Site Available for Power Purchase Agreements,
Information, Resources and Turnkey Solar Energy Systems

Advertise Your Company, Product, or Solar Services
at the BEST website address for Power Purchase Agreements!

www.PowerPurchaseAgreement.com

What Is a Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA)?

A Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA) is a financial arrangement in which a third-party developer owns, operates, and maintains the photovoltaic (PV) system, and a host customer agrees to site the system on its roof or elsewhere on its property and purchases the system’s electric output from the solar services provider for a predetermined period. This financial arrangement allows the host customer to receive stable, and sometimes lower cost electricity, while the solar services provider or another party acquires valuable financial benefits such as tax credits and income generated from the sale of electricity to the host customer.

With this business model, the host customer buys the services produced by the PV system rather than the PV system itself. This framework is referred to as the “solar services” model, and the developers who offer Solar Power Purchase Agreements are known as solar services providers. Solar Power Purchase Agreement arrangements enable the host customer to avoid many of the traditional barriers to adoption for organizations looking to install solar systems: high up-front capital costs; system performance risk; and complex design and permitting processes. In addition, Solar Power Purchase Agreement arrangements can be cash flow positive for the host customer from the day the system is commissioned.

How do Solar Power Purchase Agreements Work?

A host customer agrees to have solar panels installed on its property, typically its roof, and signs a long-term contract with the solar services provider to purchase the generated power. The host property can be either owned or leased (note that for leased properties, solar financing works best for customers that have a long-term lease). The purchase price of the generated electricity is typically at or slightly below the retail electric rate the host customer would pay its utility service provider.

Solar Power Purchase Agreement rates can be fixed, but they often contain an annual price escalator in the range of one to five percent to account for system efficiency decreases as the system ages and inflation-related costs increases for system operation, monitoring, maintenance, and anticipated increases in the price of grid-delivered electricity. A Solar Power Purchase Agreement is a performance-based arrangement in which the host customer pays only for what the system produces. The term length of most Solar Power Purchase Agreements can range from six years (i.e., the time by which available tax benefits are fully realized) to as long as 25 years.

The solar services provider functions as the project coordinator, arranging the financing, design, permitting, and construction of the system. The solar services provider purchases the solar panels for the project from a PV manufacturer, who provides warranties for system equipment.

The installer will design the system, specify the appropriate system components, and may perform the follow-up maintenance over the life of the PV system. To install the system, the solar services provider might use an in-house team of installers or have a contractual relationship with an independent installer. Once the Solar Power Purchase Agreement contract is signed, a typical installation can usually be completed in three to six months.

An investor provides equity financing and receives the federal and state tax benefits for which the system is eligible. Under certain circumstances, the investor and the solar services provider may together form a special purpose entity for the project to function as the legal entity that receives and distributes to the investor payments from the sale of the systems kWh output and tax benefits.

The utility serving the host customer provides an interconnection from the PV system to the grid, and continues its electric service with the host customer to cover the periods during which the system is producing less than the site’s electric demand. Certain states have net metering requirements in place that provide a method of crediting customers who produce electricity on-site for generation in excess of their own electricity consumption. In most states, the utility will credit excess electricity produced from the PV system, although the compensation varies significantly depending on state polices.

Some of the above information from the Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency with permission.

A Power Purchase Agreement is "behind" almost every power plant. A PPA is a contract involving the generation and sales of electricity - which is normally developed between the owner of a power plant generating the electricity, and the buyer of the electricity. PPA's can be quite lengthy agreements that may exceed 100 pages in length and take several months to even 1-2 years to finalize.

The basic information contained in a Power Purchase Agreement include the following items:

          * Definitions
          * Purchase and Sale of Contracted Capacity and Energy (such as steam, hot
             water and/or chilled water in the case of cogeneration and trigeneration
             plants
          * Operation of the Power Plant
          * Financing of the Power Plant
          * Guarantees of Performance
          * Penalties
          * Payments
          * Force Majeure
          * Default and Early Termination
          * Miscellaneous
          * T&C's

For more information about Power Purchase Agreements, call or e-mail us today.
Tel. (832) 758 - 0027.

We develop renewable energy projects, and specialize in solar power and energy project development. Our company provides the total, turnkey solar energy system "in-house." This means our capabilities and core competencies include solar project:

Our company provides the total, turnkey solar energy system design/engineering through installation, "in-house." This means we provide the following;

We have successfully completed "turnkey" installations of our solar energy systems for clients that include residential, commercial, industrial, and government. Our present clients and projects include a large pipeline of solar energy systems projects that are now in design &/or under development or construction. Our present projects range in size from:

We recently completed a 160 kW solar energy system for a major hotel wherein we self-funded their new "Rooftop PV System" with our Power Purchase Agreement.

Our solar power and energy project development services and capabilities include multiple solar technologies, including;

Even nuclear power plants generate "carbon free energy." These are just some examples of carbon-free renewable energy. The purpose of all these methods is to combat the increase in greenhouse gas emissions and reduce our impact on the environment as a whole.

We install our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, as well as cities, schools and government facilities with our Zero Up-front Cost program.

For some customers - based on their present location, utility company and electric rate - we are able to reduce their electric rate by 10%. Even more for other customers. Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System!

Does your; business, city, school, or electric utility want a more sustainable solar power and energy solution?

Are you interested in transforming your facility, campus or building(s) to "Net Zero Energy"™ buildings?

Does your city or school have a problem with rising electricity and energy expenses, but not have the financial resources to provide the necessary updates and upgrades to make your buildings more efficient?

Maybe you have already decided to go solar, but you have a lot of questions, and don't know where to start. Call us, we have the answers to your solar questions.

What is the optimum solar solution? There are hundreds of companies in the solar power and energy industry..... Who do you call to help you with these questions to help you make the right decisions?

There's still more questions, that you may not have thought about..... which solar technology do you go with, and what is the return on investment?

Are there any solar rebates, refunds, tax credits or other incentives available?

You have numerous questions and need the answers to help in the decision-making process regarding the solar power and energy system you want to install. These decisions will have a long-lasting impact as the solar energy system that you install at your business or facility will probably be generating clean power for the next 40 to 50 years, if not longer! So, the decisions that you need to make now regarding your solar energy system will be a decision that will be either a long-term asset or a liability, depending on the equipment you select and who you choose to install it.

We can help cities, schools and commercial (and large residential) customers make the switch to solar!

And now, with our no up-front cost for our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System, we can also transform your building(s) to a "Net Zero Energy Building"™ and many times, actually REDUCE your present energy expenses by 10%, and possibly more!

Examples of buildings/facilities where our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems would benefit, include; universities, churches, data centers, shopping centers, schools, radio/television stations, food processing, warehouses, new real estate developments and subdivisions, and electric utilities - practically any commercial facility can be upgraded to one of our "pollution free power" systems featuring one of our solar energy systems, including our Solar Trigeneration^sm system!

Call or email us, we can provide these answers. We are focused on providing the optimum solar energy systems for our clients. This begins with an initial review of your past 12 months energy/electrical bills. The next step would include a site visit which may include a Demand Side Management study and/or a Solar Feasibility Study which determines the optimum solar energy system for your facility or location. Once the optimum solar solution(s) are determined, we then have a blueprint to proceed that could include our installing one of our Solar Cogeneration™ or Solar Trigeneration^sm energy systems. Or for a city, real estate development or subdivision, or an electric utility, one of our utility scale power plants which might be a Concentrating Photovoltaic, Concentrating Solar Power or High Concentration Photovoltaic power plants.

Net Zero Energy^sm - when applied to a home or commercial building, simply means that the home or buildings generates as much power and energy as they consume, when measured on a monthly or annual basis, and with an onsite, renewable energy system, such as our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System.

A Net Zero Energy Building^sm produces as much energy as it uses over the course of a year. Net Zero Energy Buildings^sm are very energy efficient. The remaining low energy needs are typically met with on-site renewable energy.

First of all, understand that there is no such thing as a "zero energy building!" EVERY building uses energy, or you may as well be in a cave!

4. What are the utility company's prices for the excess power generated and sent to the grid?
(see: Net Energy Metering)

5. How difficult is it to interconnect the renewable energy system of the building with the utility company's powerlines/electric grid?

At the heart of a Net Zero Energy Building^sm is the idea that any building can meet its energy requirements from low-cost, locally available, nonpolluting, renewable sources, like our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems. Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems are the idea whose time has come, to make Net Zero Energy Buildings^sm commonplace.

Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems Provide All of the Cooling, Heating & Power, for Any Size Building, with only the Energy of the Sun. Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems Provide Simultaneous Cooling, Heating & Power whether it is 12 Noon, or 12 Midnight, and can do so, WITHOUT Connection to the electric grid!

The Diagram Below Shows How Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System Works,
for Heating and Cooling a Building (next to the Solar Thermal Collectors, are the PV Panels, that generate the Electricity).

Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System
provides "Cooling, Heating & Power" for your business,
or home with the free energy of the sun!

Net energy metering is used to measure a customer's total electric consumption against that customer's total on-site electric generation. When a customer's onsite generation of power exceeds the amount that they use, the customer's solar energy system (or other renewable energy system) exports the extra electricity to the grid. When the power requirements of the customer exceeds their onsite generation of power, the customer imports the electricity they need from electric grid. The customer pays the electric company for any extra power they use over the amount they generate - OR - the customer receives a credit or refund from the electric company if they exported more power to the grid, than what they consumed.

Renewable Energy Is Necessary for Net Zero Energy Buildings

Much focus is placed on energy efficiency as the most cost-effective way to reduce energy use in commercial buildings. However, consumption can be reduced only so much. There is a point at which the cost of adding efficiency measures is higher than that of using renewable energy such as thin film photovoltaics and other solar energy systems.

Aggressive energy efficiency strategies can reduce a building's energy consumption by 50% to 70%. Renewable energy technologies must be used to reach the goal of a net-zero energy building (NZEB).

Supply-Side Technologies

Various supply-side renewable energy technologies are available for Net Zero Energy Buildings. Supply-side technologies, often called energy producers, collect natural energy and transform it into a useful form. Examples of these technologies include PV, solar hot water, wind, hydroelectric, and biofuels.

Ranking of Energy Options

All renewable sources are favorable over conventional energy sources such as coal and natural gas; however, the U.S. Department of Energy recommends the following ranking for these options (the lower numbers are preferable):

Option Number	NZEB Supply-Side Options	Examples
0	Reduce site energy use through low-energy building technologies	Daylighting, high-efficiency heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning equipment (HVAC), natural ventilation, evaporative cooling
On-Site Supply Options
1	Use renewable energy sources available within the building's footprint	PV, solar hot water, and wind located on the building
2	Use renewable energy sources available at the site	PV, solar hot water, low-impact hydroelectric, and wind located on-site, but not on the building
Off-Site Supply Options
3	Use renewable energy sources available off site to generate energy on site	Biomass, wood pellets, ethanol, or biodiesel that can be imported from off site; waste streams from on-site processes that can be used on-site to generate electricity and heat
4	Purchase off-site renewable energy sources	Utility-based wind, PV, emissions credits, or other "green" purchasing options; hydroelectric is sometimes considered

This hierarchy is weighted toward renewable technologies within the building footprint and site. Rooftop PV and solar water heating are the most applicable supply-side technologies for Net Zero Energy Buildings. Other supply-side technologies such as parking lot-based wind or solar energy systems may be available.

Now, Your Business Can Have Our Solar Trigeneration™
Energy System, installed for No Up-Front Costs!

Through an affiliated partner company, we are now installing our Solar Trigeneration™ Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, nationwide, with Zero up-front costs.

Some customers may even see a decrease in their energy expenses by as much as 10% to 20% with our Zero up-front cost Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System!

To qualify for our no up-front cost Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems, businesses must:

We expect ALL of our customers will be very happy knowing that the clean, green, renewable power they are using is:

We provide Solar Power and Energy systems that we refer to as "EcoGeneration" solutions that produce cooler, cleaner, greener power and energy for our customers and our environment. Unlike most companies, we are equipment supplier/vendor neutral. This means we help our clients select the best equipment for their specific application. This approach provides our customers with superior performance, decreased operating expenses and increased return on investment.

Our company provides turn-key project solutions that include all or part of the following:

The Audubon Nature Center Installs Solar Trigeneration System
Making this one of the World's First "Net Zero Energy Buildings"
at Their New Facility in Los Angeles, California

GRID-FREE SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM....
NO CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC UTILITY!

The Solar Trigeneration Provides All of their Facility's (5000 sq.ft.)
Cooling, Heating and Power Requirements - at 12 noon or 12 midnite,
WITHOUT ANY CONNECTION to the Electric Utility
with our Solar Trigeneration Energy System!

The Audubon Nature Center is totally powered by the sun’s energy and our Solar Trigeneration energy system!

The 5,300 square foot building operates entirely “grid-free” and without any electric connections to the electric grid, or natural gas connections – a truly sustainable power and energy solution.

Best of all, the Audubon Center doesn’t rely on the over-burdened electric grid or even natural gas. Therefore, the Audubon Nature Center NEVER receives an electric bill or natural gas bill.... ever!

The Audubon Nature Center's 5,000 square foot office and conference facility is powered by a Solar Trigeneration system that features a 25-kilowatt solar electric power system where the energy is stored in a bank of batteries. The Center is cooled by a 10-ton solar absorption cooling system powered by an array of very efficient solar heat pipe vacuum tube thermal collectors. The collectors heat the water to temperatures of 200+ degree F stored in a 1,200 gallon insulated tank, another type of inexpensive battery. The Solar Trigeneration system at the Audubon not only provides the air-conditioning in the summer but also heats the building in the winter, and provides the hot water for the kitchen and bathrooms.

Absorption chillers, and cooling with solar energy with an absorption chiller are not new technologies. In fact, absorption chiller technology is over 70 years old. The first refrigerators were powered by propane gas to run the absorption chillers that used ammonia as a refrigerant. Electricity and the electric compression chiller gained popularity only because of the convenient “plug and play” appliance and relatively cheap electric rates. Electricity is no longer economically, or environmentally “cheap.”

Few people realize that the world's first commercial power plant, designed and built by Thomas Edison, was a cogeneration power plant that was first opened on Pearl Street, in Lower Manhattan, New York. That was in 1882! Edison not only generated, and sold electricity in the several blocks surrounding his "Pearl Street Station" but he also sold the hot water that was also generated from the cogeneration plant. The fuel Edison used for generating the electricity and hot water (cogeneration) came from "pulverized coal." The Pearl Street Station provided 110 volts of "direct current" power to 59 customers in lower Manhattan, around his Pearl Street laboratory.

Unlike traditional cogeneration and trigeneration power plants that are fueled by natural gas - and Thomas Edison's cogeneration plant, which was fueled with pulverized coal, our Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration energy systems are fueled with the energy of the sun! And, while natural gas is a "cleaner" fuel, it still has its problems in that it is a limited resource and generates greenhouse gas emissions. Natural gas also have had extreme price swings and has a history of price volatility. Natural gas prices have gone from a high of $17.00/mmbtu to a recent low of under $3.00/mmbtu.

Regarding pulverized coal, yes, it's cheap in terms of the cost of generating electricity, but too many people forget about the "externalities" of pulverized coal that is not reflected in the "cheap" costs of generating electricity from pulverized coal. These costs not accounted for are the huge environmental cost relating to the use of pulverized coal. Pound for pound, pulverized coal and coal fired power plants generate more greenhouse gas emissions than any other fossil fuel. There are also the costs related to the health and safety issues of the miners that mine the coal. And, the costs to the environment in terms of the ever-increasing amounts of mercury that are "dumped" into the environment from coal fired power plants, is also not reflected in the "cheap" price of generating power from pulverized coal.

And talk about "cheap" costs of generating power and energy, there is nothing cheaper than free!!!!

The owners of the Audubon Nature Center never receive any monthly natural gas or electric bills!

Solar Trigeneration is an EcoGeneration solution. EcoGeneration refers to a power and energy system that uses the “natural” energy or fuel that is available for a specific site or location. Such energy or fuel includes, solar, wind, BioMethane, geothermal, and ocean power, including ocean tidal and ocean thermal energy conversion. For example, in the desert areas of the Southwestern U.S. , there is an abundance of solar energy. Therefore, home-owners and business owners in this part of the country should seriously consider an EcoGeneration system (“ecogen system”) that optimizes the opportunities available through solar energy

Today, the cause of the summer peak electric demand, electric supply problems, and black-outs, are the result of the energy crisis in California, primarily attributed to the air conditioning load. Over 40 percent of the electricity generated every day goes is used for air conditioning. At this time of year, the electric utilities are forced to turn on all of their power plants to generate the “peak” demands required by the customers, primarily for air-conditioning. This means that all of the efficient power plants, the inefficient power plants, along with all of the “peaking” power plants have to run to generate the electricity needed. The high cost of meeting the peak demand is passed on to the consumers with rates of $.20+ per kWh during the summer months. For fixed income seniors living in desert communities, they are already forced to conserve on energy, food, water, and other necessities of life.

Greater Demands on California’s Limited Electric Supply, Lack of New Electric Power Supplies, and This Summer’s Heat Wave are Compounding the Problem Leading to the “Perfect Electric Storm”

Many people will remember the movie “The Perfect Storm” from several years ago, when several storms came together in the northeastern part of the

U.S.

to produce a deadly and catastrophic “perfect” storm. Today, a different type of “perfect storm” is brewing in California. The storm that’s looming on the horizon in California is a “perfect electric storm” wherein the supply of electricity from the electric utility company’s power plants are unable to keep-up with the demand – meaning a black-out, or loss of electricity, like the black-outs from previous years, and like the northeastern black-out from 2003.

The most likely time of year for a black-out in California, unfortunately, is the summer, when air-conditioners are running at the maximum, and placing the maximum load on California’s electricity supply. Should such a black-out occur in the desert areas of California, where daily high temperatures routinely reach 110 degrees and higher, and where a significant percentage of the population is comprised of retired and senior citizens, and should the black-out be prolonged, a number of deaths will be the likely outcome. People, and especially the elderly, simply cannot tolerate prolonged high temperatures

How Do We Prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from Occurring in California and Other Regions in the U.S.?

Another major concern is how do we prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from happening, like the Northeast Blackout several summers ago, especially for people living in the desert? California ’s energy authorities are warning of a possible energy crisis during the hot summer months, due to the excessive and prolonged summer temperatures where demand increases by over 40 percent. Compounding the problem is the rising demand for electricity due to population growth and the limited transmission capacity in some areas in the region. According to the California Energy Commission, the State must build three natural gas-fired 500-megawatt peaking power plants, every year, just to keep up with the growing demands of electricity. Failure to keep up with demand means The problem is getting worse due to the population growth in the Inland Empire , Coachella Valley and Antelope Valley. The projected power gap for the coming summers remains bleak.

Governor Schwarzenegger’s “Million Solar Roofs” program and the passage of the 2005 Federal Energy Act will be the foundation to create a “Perfect Solar Storm” to trigger the Solar Economy throughout California.

With the threat of California’s seniors and elderly dying from heat exhaustion due to power outages, black-outs, rolling black-outs and the rising costs of electricity and natural gas, combined with the continuing impact of global warming, the perfect solution is to create a Solar Revolution by cooling, heating and powering the desert with solar energy and technologies like Solar Cogeneration or Solar Trigeneration.

The hot water from the Solar Thermal Collectors on the roof of the Audubon is pumped here for producing the building's heating, cooling and domestic hot water.
Hot water is stored in the tank on the left for overnight.

What Absorption Chillers and How Does They Work?

Absorption chillers use heat instead of mechanical energy to provide cooling. A thermal compressor consists of an absorber, a generator, a pump, and a throttling device, and replaces the mechanical vapor compressor.

In the chiller, refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is absorbed by a solution mixture in the absorber. This solution is then pumped to the generator. There the refrigerant re-vaporizes using a waste steam heat source. The refrigerant-depleted solution then returns to the absorber via a throttling device. The two most common refrigerant/ absorbent mixtures used in absorption chillers are water/lithium bromide and ammonia/water.

Compared with mechanical chillers, absorption chillers have a low coefficient of performance (COP = chiller load/heat input). However, absorption chillers can substantially reduce operating costs because they are powered by low-grade waste heat. Vapor compression chillers, by contrast, must be motor- or engine-driven.

Low-pressure, steam-driven absorption chillers are available in capacities ranging from 100 to 1,500 tons. Absorption chillers come in two commercially available designs: single-effect and double-effect. Single-effect machines provide a thermal COP of 0.7 and require about 18 pounds of 15-pound-per-square-inch-gauge (psig) steam per ton-hour of cooling. Double-effect machines are about 40% more efficient, but require a higher grade of thermal input, using about 10 pounds of 100- to 150-psig steam per ton-hour.

In single-effect absorption chillers, all condensing heat cools and condenses in the condenser. From there it is released to the cooling water. A double-effect machine adopts a higher heat efficiency of condensation and divides the generator into a high-temperature and a low-temperature generator.

Determine the cost-effectiveness of displacing a portion of your cooling load with a waste steam absorption chiller by taking the following steps:

Absorption Chillers Refrigeration Cycle

The basic cooling cycle is the same for the absorption and electric chillers. Both systems use a low-temperature liquid refrigerant that absorbs heat from the water to be cooled and converts to a vapor phase (in the evaporator section). The refrigerant vapors are then compressed to a higher pressure (by a compressor or a generator), converted back into a liquid by rejecting heat to the external surroundings (in the condenser section), and then expanded to a low- pressure mixture of liquid and vapor (in the expander section) that goes back to the evaporator section and the cycle is repeated.

The basic difference between the electric chillers and absorption chillers is that an electric chiller uses an electric motor for operating a compressor used for raising the pressure of refrigerant vapors and absorption chillers use the heat for compressing refrigerant vapors to a high-pressure. The rejected heat from the power-generation equipment (e.g. turbines, microturbines, and engines) may be used with an absorption chiller to provide the cooling in a CHP system.

The basic absorption cycle employs two fluids, the absorbate or refrigerant, and the absorbent. The most commonly fluids are water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorbent. These fluids are separated and recombined in the absorption cycle. In the absorption cycle the low-pressure refrigerant vapor is absorbed into the absorbent releasing a large amount of heat. The liquid refrigerant/absorbent solution is pumped to a high-operating pressure generator using significantly less electricity than that for compressing the refrigerant for an electric chiller. Heat is added at the high-pressure generator from a gas burner, steam, hot water or hot gases. The added heat causes the refrigerant to desorb from the absorbent and vaporize. The vapors flow to a condenser, where heat is rejected and condense to a high-pressure liquid. The liquid is then throttled though an expansion valve to the lower pressure in the evaporator where it evaporates by absorbing heat and provides useful cooling. The remaining liquid absorbent, in the generator passes through a valve, where its pressure is reduced, and then is recombined with the low-pressure refrigerant vapors returning from the evaporator so the cycle can be repeated.

Absorption chillers are used to generate cold water (44°F) that is circulated to air handlers in the distribution system for air conditioning.

"Indirect-fired" absorption chillers use steam, hot water or hot gases steam from a boiler, turbine or engine generator, or fuel cell as their primary power input. Theses chillers can be well suited for integration into a CHP system for buildings by utilizing the rejected heat from the electric generation process, thereby providing high operating efficiencies through use of otherwise wasted energy.

"Direct-fired" systems contain natural gas burners; rejected heat from these chillers can be used to regenerate desiccant dehumidifiers or provide hot water.

Commercially, absorption chillers can be single-effect or multiple-effect. The above schematic refers to a single-effect absorption chiller. Multiple-effect absorption chillers are more efficient and discussed below.

In single-effect absorption chillers, the heat released during the chemical process of absorbing refrigerant vapor into the liquid stream, rich in absorbent, is rejected to the environment. In a multiple-effect absorption chiller, some of this energy is used as the driving force to generate more refrigerant vapor. The more vapor generated per unit of heat or fuel input, the greater the cooling capacity and the higher the overall operating efficiency.

Double-effect absorption chillers uses two generators paired with a single condenser, absorber, and evaporator. It requires a higher temperature heat input to operate and therefore they are limited in the type of electrical generation equipment they can be paired with when used in a CHP System.

Triple-effect absorption chillers can achieve even higher efficiencies than the double-effect chillers. These absorption chillers require still higher elevated operating temperatures that can limit choices in materials and refrigerant/absorbent pairs. Triple-effect chillers are under development by manufacturers working in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy.

Polycrystalline silicon, also referred to as "semicrystalline silicon," "polysilicon," "poly-Si," or just "poly," is a material consisting of small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline silicon cells are recognized by their visible grain known as the “metal flake effect.”

Semiconductor grade as well as "solar grade" polycrystalline silicon is converted to "single crystal" silicon - meaning that the randomly associated crystallites of silicon in "polycrystalline silicon" are converted to a large "single" crystal. Single crystal silicon is used to manufacture most Si-based microelectronic devices. Polycrystalline silicon can be as high in purity as 99.9999%.

Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide (CuInSe2) is a material that provides an extremely high absorption of light ( 99%) to be absorbed in the first micron of the material. Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide is projected to be the revolutionary material that some are saying, could put typical "central" power plants and some electric utilities, out of business, as it will be much cheaper for customers to generate their own onsite power with Thin Film Photovoltaics made from these materials.

When additional small amounts of Gallium is added to Copper Indium diSelenide, this increases its' light-absorbing band gap, thereby making the solar panel more closely match the solar spectrum of the sun. This, in turn, increases the voltage and the efficiency of the Thin Film Photovoltaics solar panel.

The conversion efficiency of Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide PV technologies is very stable over time, meaning its power output remains stable over many years, while the power output of many other PV materials can rapidly decline with time.

Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) are solar energy systems that are integrated into a part of the building, that serve as the building's exterior or the building's skin.

Commercial buildings and facilities (including houses) that integrate their own solar power systems into the building's exteriors, are referred to as "power buildings."

Without a doubt, the most exciting technology in the solar power industry is "Thin Film Photovoltaics." Thin Film Photovoltaics technology represents the next big thing in renewable energy and solar power as it integrates nanotechnologies into the production of solar photovoltaics.

According to the Department of Energy, the recent technological advances in thin film photovoltaics make this a very exciting time to be in the solar energy industry. These advances have led to many new developments in the components and manufacturing of thin film photovoltaics. This has made thin film photovoltaics cheaper to manufacture as they are also now easier to install since they are extremely versatile, flexible, bendable, and much lighter.

Thin film photovoltaics have led many to believe that as much as 50% of our nation's future power will be generated by "power buildings" that integrate "building integrated photovoltaics" or "BIPV" into the building's skin or exterior surfaces, that convert sunlight into "pollution free power" for use in the building. This also designates these buildings (and homes) as "Net Zero Energy Buildings" and make the option for going grid-free, or not connecting to the grid, a real possibility.

According to the Department of Energy, the market potential for printed electronics will grow into a $47 billion market by 2018. Thin film photovoltaics represents a significant portion of this market - and based on this heavily researched solar technology, thin film photovoltaics now represents a $20 billion/year industry in the U.S.

The solar PV panels produced under the thin film photovoltaics umbrella have the potential to produce power significantly cheaper power than today’s typical silicon-based PV panels. The panels are usually made in the form of a monolithic piece of glass, upon which various thin films are deposited, although a number of firms are working on depositing the materials on a substrate, such as stainless steel or plastic.

Amorphous Silicon had the largest share of the thin film photovoltaics market through 2006. It has been researched for the longest period of time, may be the best understood material of the three and has been commercial for the longest. Cadmium Telluride, a very toxic chemical and has the remaining share and is growing.

About Us

We provide renewable energy engineering services and turnkey installations of our solar energy systems for commercial, municipal, government, schools and utility clients with projects located in the U.S., Canada Central America and the Caribbean. In many cases, we may also be able to provide project finance or investment.

Solar Electric Power Systems (PV)

Solar electric power systems transform sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is an abundant resource. Every minute the sun bathes the Earth in as much energy as the world consumes in an entire year.

Solar cells employ special materials called semiconductors that create electricity when exposed to light. Solar electric systems are quiet and easy to use, and they require no fuel other than sunlight. Because they contain no moving parts, they are durable, reliable, and easy to maintain.

How It Works

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, do the work of making electricity. Several types of solar electric technology are under development, but four—crystalline silicon (a form of refined beach sand), thin films, concentrators, and thermophotovoltaics—are illustrative of the range of technologies. Solar cells are connected to a variety of other components to make a solar electric power system.

Crystalline Silicon

Crystalline silicon solar cells are used in more than half of all solar electric devices. Like most semiconductor devices, they include a positive layer (on the bottom) and a negative layer (on the top) that create an electrical field inside the cell. When a photon of light strikes a semiconductor, it releases electrons (see animation). The free electrons flow through the solar cell's bottom layer to a connecting wire as direct current (DC) electricity.

Some solar cells are made from polycrystalline silicon, which consists of several small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are cheaper to produce but somewhat less efficient than single-crystal silicon.

A simple silicon solar cell can power a watch or calculator. However, it produces only a tiny amount of electricity. Connected together, solar cells form modules that can generate substantial amounts of power. Modules are the building blocks of solar electric systems, which can produce enough power for a house, a rural medical clinic, or an entire village. Large arrays of solar electric modules can power satellites or provide electricity for utilities.

Solar Electric Power System Components

In addition to modules, several components are needed to complete a solar electric power system.

Many systems include batteries, battery chargers, a backup generator, and a controller so that people in solar-powered homes and buildings can turn on the lights at night or run televisions or appliances on cloudy days. Grid-connected systems don't require batteries or backup generators because they use the grid for backup power. Some remote system applications, such as those used to pump water, do not require a backup power source.

Diagram showing how solar modules can be connected to a DC-AC inverter, battery bank, and a backup generator to provide a continuous source of power in stand-alone applications.

Components of a typical standalone PV system using crystalline silicon technology. (Source: Solar Electric Power Association)

Solar electric power systems can incorporate inverters or power control units to transform the DC electricity produced by the solar cells into alternating current (AC) to run AC appliances or sell to a utility grid. Complete systems usually include safety disconnects, fuses, and a grounding circuit as well.

Thin Films

Solar electric thin films are lighter, more resilient, and easier to manufacture than crystalline silicon modules. The best-developed thin-film technology uses amorphous silicon, in which the atoms are not arranged in any particular order as they would be in a crystal. An amorphous silicon film only one micron thick can absorb 90% of the usable solar energy falling on it. Other thin-film materials include cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide. Substantial cost savings are possible with this technology because thin films require relatively little semiconductor materials.

Thin films are produced as large, complete modules, not as individual cells that must be mounted in frames and wired together. They are manufactured by applying extremely thin layers of semiconductor material to a low-cost backing such as glass or plastic. Electrical contacts, antireflective coatings, and protective layers are also applied directly to the backing material. Thin films conform to the shape of the backing, a feature that allows them to be used in such innovative products as flexible solar electric roofing shingles.

Concentrators

Concentrators use optical lenses (similar to plastic magnifying glasses) or mirrors to concentrate the sunlight that falls on a solar cell. With a concentrator to magnify the light intensity, the solar cell produces more electricity. Today, most solar cells in concentrators are made from crystalline silicon. However, materials such as gallium arsenide and gallium indium phosphide are more efficient than silicon in solar electric concentrators and will likely see more use in the future. These materials are now used in communications satellites and other space applications.

Concentrators produce more electricity using less of the expensive semiconductor material than other solar electric systems. A basic concentrator unit consists of a lens to focus the light, a solar cell assembly, a housing element, a secondary concentrator to reflect off-center light rays onto the cell, a mechanism to dissipate excess heat, and various contacts and adhesives. The basic unit can be combined into modules of varying sizes and shapes. Concentrators only work with direct sunlight and operate most effectively in sunny, dry climates. They must be used with tracking systems to keep them pointed toward the sun.

Thermophotovoltaics

Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) devices convert heat into electricity in much the same way that other PV devices convert light into electricity. The difference is that TPV technology uses semiconductors "tuned" to the longer-wavelength, invisible infrared radiation emitted by warm objects. This technology is cleaner, quieter, and simpler than conventional power generation using steam turbines and generators.

TPV converters are relatively maintenance-free because they contain no moving parts. In addition to using solar energy, they can convert heat from any high-temperature heat source, including combustion of a fuel such as natural gas or propane, into electricity. TPV converters produce virtually no carbon monoxide and few emissions. They may be used in the future in gas furnaces that generate their own electricity for self-ignition (during power outages) and in portable generators and battery chargers.

Advantages

Solar electric systems offer many advantages. Standalone systems can eliminate the need to build expensive new power lines to remote locations. For rural and remote applications, solar electricity can cost less than any other means of producing electricity. Solar electric systems can also connect to existing power lines to boost electricity output during times of high demand such as on hot, sunny days when air conditioners are on.

Solar electric systems are flexible. Solar electric modules can stand on the ground or be mounted on rooftops. They can also be built into glass skylights and walls. They can be made to look like roof shingles and can even come equipped with devices to turn their DC output into the same AC utilities deliver to wall sockets. These advances mean individual homeowners and businesses can relieve pressure on local utilities struggling to meet the increasing demand for electricity.

More than 30 states offer grid-connected solar electric system owners the chance to save money on their energy bills by feeding any excess power their solar electric system produces into the utility grid—an arrangement called net metering.

Solar power systems require minimal maintenance. They run quietly and efficiently without polluting. They are easy to combine with other types of electric generators such as wind, hydro, or natural gas turbines. They can charge batteries to make solar electricity continuously available.

For utilities, large-scale solar electric power plants can help meet demand for new power generation, especially in distributed applications. A solar electric power plant is created from multiple arrays that are interconnected electronically. Solar electric plants are easier to site and are quicker to build than conventional power plants. They are also easy to expand incrementally—by adding more modules—as power demand increases.

Solar electric power systems are good for the environment. When solar electric technologies displace fossil fuels for pumping water, lighting homes, or running appliances, they reduce the greenhouse gases and pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. The use of solar electric systems is particularly important in developing nations because it can help avert the expected increases in emissions of greenhouse gases caused by the growing demand for electricity in those countries.

Solar electric technologies also benefit the U.S. economy by creating jobs in U.S. companies. Exporting solar electric technologies to developing nations expands U.S. markets while protecting the global environment.

Disadvantages

Although solar electric systems make financial sense in remote areas that lack access to power lines, they are usually more expensive than fossil fuels for grid-connected applications.

This disadvantage is significant for utilities considering large-scale solar electric power plants. Although solar electricity costs considerably more than electricity generated by conventional plants, regulatory agencies often require utilities to supply electricity for the lowest cash cost.

Utilities view solar electric power plants differently than they view conventional power plants. Solar electric modules produce electricity intermittently—only when the sun shines. Their output varies with the weather and disappears altogether at night. Integrating solar electricity into a utility system requires creative planning.

Applications

Aerial photo showing solar electric arrays and solar hot-water systems installed on the roof of the Georgia Tech University Aquatic Center.

A combination of solar electric arrays and pool-heating solar collectors were used to provide power and heat to the Georgia Tech University Aquatic Center, site of the 1996 Olympic swimming competition. (Credit: Heliocol)

Solar electricity has powered satellites since the dawn of the space program. It has run remote communications outposts high in the mountains and turned on the lights, kept medicines cold, and pumped water in rural areas for more than 30 years. Small solar cells are used to power wristwatches, calculators, and other electronic gadgets. More recently, solar electric systems have been used to provide supplemental power to homes and commercial buildings in cities.

Solar electric technology has important roles to play in both the developing and developed worlds. From the farmer irrigating his crops in rural Mexico to an innovative lighting system for an Olympic sports arena, solar electric solutions abound.

Electric utilities harness solar electricity for distributed applications—near substations or at the end of overloaded power lines, for example, to avoid or defer costly line upgrades. They use solar electricity during hot, sunny periods when the demand for air conditioning stretches conventional power generation to its limit. The Sacramento Municipal Utility District, for example, uses large solar electric arrays as part of its power generation mix. Utilities also rely on solar electricity to power remote, standalone monitoring systems.

Consumers and builders are integrating solar electric modules into their homes and offices. Innovative solar electric technologies can replace conventional roofing and facade materials in new buildings. Solar electric roofing shingles, for example, are being used in some new residences. In grid-connected applications, solar electricity supplies some of a consumer's energy needs; the local utility provides the rest.

Standalone solar electric systems power a variety of applications far from the reaches of the power grid. These applications include remote communications systems such as television and radio transmitters and receivers, telephone systems, and microwave repeaters. Standalone solar electric power is also used to prevent corrosion of metal pipes, tanks, bridges, and buildings.

Many remote residences worldwide use solar electricity as their source of power. For instance, more than 100,000 vacation homes in Scandinavia rely solely on solar electric technology to run lights and appliances.

Villages around the world are building solar electric systems to bring electricity to their homes and local industries, often for the first time. To make the maximum use of available resources, village power is typically produced by a hybrid power system that combines solar electricity with diesel backup generators and sometimes another renewable energy technology such wind power. Villages also use standalone solar electric systems for pumping water—an application shared by rural farmers and ranchers in the United States.

The Renewable Energy Institute (REI) does not take a stand in the debate on global warming, and if there is global warming, is it "anthropogenic" or is it caused by the sun, or the sun's normal cycles. Or, if there is " climate change," is it "global cooling" caused by the water vapor in the atmosphere? The stand we take is that we need to invest in renewable energy technologies, producing clean, renewable energy that doesn't pollute the planet, and end America's addiction to crude oil from foreign countries where we now spend OVER $1 Billion/day, to buy the oil we need, and some of those suppliers (muslims in foreign countries) take our dollars and make bombs and bullets and send our boys back in body bags. We need to stop this, and put American's back to work, generating "green power and energy" right here at home.

At the Renewable Energy Institute, we are waiting for the "true" scientists who doing the real research, to provide us with the science and answers critically needed to formulate correct policy - and not the phony " scientists" who are following politically-motivated and profit-driven agendas of the United Nations and government leaders. These phony scientists are not interested in conducting real scientific research. Their very livelihoods are dependent on the government grants to fund their phony research that have pre-determined conclusions before and "research" is conducted.

Political-interference by governments, governmental agencies, and bureaucrats that hand out billions of tax-payers dollars to phony scientists to conduct "junk science" and research, expect the conclusions that supports anthropogenic global warming, or climate change.

When scientists conclude in their research that they find no evidence of anthropogenic climate change or global warming, they are summarily dismissed, and black-balled from their communities and colleagues, and never again receive funding or grants. Grants and funding by government bureaucrats with politically-driven agendas to "scientists" expecting their pre-determined results and conclusions supporting anthropogenic global warming must stop.

Taxpayers have bankrolled the oil and gas industry, and the coal industry for 100 years now, and the nuclear industry for 50 years, to keep these dirty fuels and energy "cheap." Take away the tax-payer incentives and tax dollars, and we believe the real cost of gasoline, would be similar to the gasoline cost in Europe - $7.00 - $8.00/gallon!

In the meantime, our U.S. Military is spending billions of tax-payer dollars each year protecting the Straits of Hormuz where much of the world's crude oil is produced and shipped through the straits' international shipping lanes. Each day, hundreds of "very large crude carriers" pass through the Straits of Hormuz carrying oil from OPEC and the Middle-East to the U.S. and many other countries.

Isn't it time we take some of the tax-payer dollars supporting the nuclear, coal and oil and gas industries, and start incentivizing clean, renewable energy technologies that don't pollute or harm the environment in any way? Isn't it time that America ends its reliance on non-sustainable energy sources and stop over $1 billion every day, to oil suppliers from foreign countries, and start putting this money in "solar on every rooftop?!?

Regarding the harm being caused to our planet from energy use, far more harm is being done to the planet, as well as to people and plants and animals, particularly fish, from the mercury emissions from coal fired power plants than from the coal fired power plants' greenhouse gas emissions. We surmise that if any polar bears have died as a result of an environmental problem, it was more likely from the high levels of mercury in their food chain, than from greenhouse gas emissions.

The Renewable Energy Institute is supporting and advancing renewable energy technologies, as well as reducing and eliminating greenhouse gas emissions and the fossil-fuel problems related to America's oil addiction and ending our dependence on foreign oil. The renewable energy technologies we support are already deemed to be economic, viable and practical. Solutions such as Solar Trigeneration energy systems (see www.SolarTrigeneration.com for more information) for any kind of facility or building - office buildings, shopping centers, data centers, university campuses, etc.

Since 2003, a Solar Trigeneration energy system has been providing 100% of the power and energy for a 5,300 sq. ft. office building near downtown Los Angeles, and doing so without any connection to the electric grid, whether its 12 noon or 12 midnite!

The Renewable Energy Institute is also involved in research and advocacy of "Net Zero Energy" (see: www.NetZeroEnergy.com for more information) and "Net Zero Energy Buildings" (see: www.NetZeroEnergyBuildings.com for more information). Net Zero Energy Buildings generate as much (or more) energy than they use, and export their excess power to the grid, which we believe needs to be updated into a "Transmission Superhighway."

The past 10 years indicates the opposite of "global warming" has occurred - that the "Earths Fever" has and that global cooling has taken place.

Weather, on a daily basis, or even an annual basis, is not climate, and climate is not weather.

"Climate change" is always taking place, from one day to the next, and one week to the next, as well as one year to the next. The planet's climate is an ever-evolving, changing and dynamic process.

Again, researchers and scientists need to refrain from being political, and stay out of politics, and politicians need to stay out of the way of the scientists and researchers, and let them do their work. Politicians, government leaders and bureaucrats scientists need true and accurate data and climate research from scientists that do not have a political agenda.

In the meantime, as there may still be 30 years of research before there are conclusive answers concerning anthropogenic climate change, can we "risk" 30 years of our children and grand children's future, should there is a link between climate change and greenhouse gas emissions? Should we not err on the side of caution?

Marion King Hubbert was a geologist and scientist who worked at Shell Oil company's research lab in Houston, Texas. Hubbert made several important contributions to geology, geophysics and petroleum geology. Hubbert is most recognized for the "Hubbert Curve" and " Hubbert Peak Theory" which is now referred to as " Peak Oil.

Hubbert's life work determined that the world has a finite amount of petroleum that can be produced. (Similarly, there is a finite amount of coal.) Many scientists and engineers believe we have reached Hubbert's "peak oil" limit. Hubbert's espouses that when 50% of domestic crude oil production has been reached, that there will be such significant upward demand on prices of the limited supplies of oil production, that the U.S. economy will experience severe economic, social, and political turmoil.

Hubbert's Peak Oil predictions have proven to be true and this is validated as the U.S. in the early 1970's produced about 60% of its' oil demand and imported 40%. That equation has flipped since then, because our domestic oil production has been on the decline since 1970, so now, due to our declining domestic oil production, we have to import 60% of our oil supplies, to meet our country's oil/energy demands.

How severe our economic calamity and next "oil shock" will depend upon a number of factors, including when this occurs, as well as the following:

1. the dependence of the individual country upon its own crude oil production to meet its energy needs and to subsidize consumer imports;

4. the degree to which our country had prepared in advance for this inevitable geological and economic calamity.

Examples of past "oil shocks" and the economic and political calamities that followed:

United States: Our peak crude oil production of domestic oil occurred in 1970; the first "oil shock" and oil crisis followed in 1973 with the Arab/OPEC Oil Embargo.

Iran: Their peak crude oil production occurred in 1974; They had their islamic revolution 1979 that overturned government and replaced it with radical islam.

Soviet Union: Their peak crude oil production was in 1989; what happened next?
Their country disintegrated and the collapse of the Soviet Union followed in 1991.

Indonesia: Their peak crude oil production was in 1991; their financial and government crisis followed in 1997.

Iraq: Iraq's crude oil production was in 1989; they then invaded Kuwait (for their oil) in 1991.

Using Mr. Hubbert's predictions, that beginning around 2000 we would see peak (global) oil production, then, if the country's not weaning themselves off of their oil addiction, and had not begun making the switch to renewable energy, that the negative economic and political calamities would soon follow, including ever-increasing prices of energy that is from fossil fuels.

Now is the time to begin weaning ourselves off of fossil fuels and making the transition to and increasing the use of renewable energy. If you don't believe in climate change, or global warming, GREAT! Join us in the switch to renewable energy and a fossil-free economy!

America Has INCREASED its' Dependence on Foreign
Sources of Energy by 50% Since 1973.

America is even more "addicted" to foreign oil today, than we were in 1973 - 1974 when OPEC, Saudi Arabia and other suppliers from the Middle-East stopped selling us their fossil fuels, and created a significant blow to our economy.

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The Renewable Energy Institute is "Changing The Way The World Does Energy by Providing Research & Development, Funding and Resources That Creates Sustainable Energy via 'Carbon Free Energy' and 'Pollution Free Power' Through Expanding the use of Renewable Energy Technologies."

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